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X-MS-Exchange-Organization-SCL: 0 MIME-Version: 1.0 --===============8930983276474075277== Content-Language: en-US Content-Type: multipart/alternative; boundary="_000_CY4PR02MB2312E8D3A939B5C9DBEA7697BAE50CY4PR02MB2312namp_" --_000_CY4PR02MB2312E8D3A939B5C9DBEA7697BAE50CY4PR02MB2312namp_ Content-Type: text/plain; charset="Windows-1252" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable [Tomorrow's Professor] <https://tomprof.stanford.edu/mail/1616#> [Jossy Bass logo] Subscribe/Unsubscribe<https://mailman.stanford.edu/mailman/listinfo/tomorro= ws-professor> TomProf Online<https://sites.stanford.edu/tomorrowsprofessor> Connect with us on Social Media <http://www.facebook.com/TomorrowsProfessor><http://twitter.com/tomorrowspr= of><https://plus.google.com/communities/113334977333720402121><https://www.= linkedin.com/groups/6528189> The college classroom is no exception. Students=92 satisfaction with a cour= se and their willingness to engage in certain activities will depend in par= t on how well the instructor=92s definition of what is and ought to be happ= ening in the classroom aligns with their own 1616 Students=92 Definitions of the College Classroom [Prof. Rick Reis] Folks: The posting below looks at how students define their own and the instructor= =92s responsibilities in class and what impact this has on student learning= . It is from Chapter 4 =96 Students=92 Differing Definitions of the Classr= oom in the book, Discussion in the College Classroom: Getting Your Students= Engaged and Participating in Person and Online, by Jay R. Howard. Jossey-B= ass, San Francisco. Copyright =A9 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc., A Wiley Com= pany. One Montgomery Street, Suite 1200. San Francisco, CA 94104-4594 www.w= iley.com All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission. Regards, Rick Reis reis@stanford.edu<mailto:reis@stanford.edu> UP NEXT: Having =93The Conversation=94 =96 Telling Your Advisor You Don=92t= Want to Be a Professor Tomorrow=92s Teaching and Learning ---------- 2,388 words ---------- Students=92 Definitions of the College Classroom Sociologists note that social contexts must be defined (Berger and Luckmann= 1967). How participants in an interaction define a situation will determin= e what behaviors they see as appropriate for that context (Goffman 1959; Mc= Hugh 1968). The college classroom is no exception. Students=92 satisfaction= with a course and their willingness to engage in certain activities will d= epend in part on how well the instructor=92s definition of what is and ough= t to be happening in the classroom aligns with their own. An important part= of the process is defining the roles, the expectations for behavior, of bo= th the instructor and students. Recall that these definitions and role expectations are not developed from = scratch. We bring years of experience in similar contexts to our interactio= ns. The normative social expectations we have learned in the past will infl= uence our initial assumptions about what is going on in a particular situat= ion. Recall the elevator norms discussed in Chapter 1. When we ride a parti= cular elevator for the first time, we do not reinvent the wheel. We rely on= our past experiences, which have taught us what is and is not appropriate = behaviors for riding on an elevator. We face the front. We divide up the sp= ace to allow one another as much personal space as possible. We limit inter= action with strangers to a smile, a nod of the head, or small-talk. We don= =92t have to wonder each time we step onto a new elevator =96 is this one o= f those where we face the front? Or will other passengers expect me to face= the rear or the side of the elevator instead? Elevator norms are nearly un= iversal. We don=92t spend any time or energy wondering about which directio= n we should face when we step on board a particular elevator for the first = time. The college classroom has clear normative expectations as well. In Chapter = 2, we explored the norm of civil attention. In Chapter 3, we described the = individual and contextual factors that help to determine which students are= most likely to be the dominant talkers who accept the consolidation of res= ponsibility for participation and which students are most likely to be only= occasional contributors to class discussion. Fortunately for instructors w= ho want to engage their students in the pursuit of greater learning, there = is enough variation in how college courses are structured to allow instruct= ors, as well as students, some room for negotiation in the definition of th= e situation in the classroom. Students have encountered some courses where = the only person who ever talks in class is the instructor. They likely have= also been in courses that were very interactive with high expectations for= student participation. Students may have experienced courses with a signif= icant amount of peer-to-peer collaborative learning. So there is a continu= um of experiences with college courses from the expectation for high levels= of student engagement to the expectation that students will be very passiv= e. But the majority of students=92 experiences in higher education are like= ly to have had a heavy focus on the faculty member with an expectation for = some participation, at least on the part of a few students. In sum, student= s will assume that civil attention and the consolidation of responsibility = are the operative norms unless faculty members make intentional efforts to = communicate a different set of norms and a new definition of the situation.= Without those intentional efforts to help students redefine their understa= ndings of the classroom, they may resent, or even actively resist, changes = and are likely to express their frustrations in the end-of-semester course = evaluations. Therefore, it=92s important to know our starting point. How do students def= ine their own and the instructor=92s responsibilities in class? What reaso= ns do they give for their own participation or lack of participation? With = an understanding of how students define the college classroom and what they= think is expected of them, we can then begin the process of creating a new= definition and new expectations. Students=92 Views of Their Responsibilities in College Courses What do students typically see as their responsibilities in the college cla= ssroom? Through a series of studies, my colleagues and I have found high le= vels of agreement that students perceive they should complete assigned task= s, attend class, study, learn the material, pay attention in class, and ask= for help when needed (Howard and Baird 2000; Howard, James, and Taylor 200= 2; Howard, Zoeller, and Pratt 2006). However, there was one area of consist= ent and significant disagreement between students who are dominant talkers = and students who are less frequent participants in class. Given the topic o= f this book, you can guess what that difference is. Talkers are significant= ly more likely than non-talkers to agree that students are responsible for = participation in class discussion (Howard and Baird 2000; Howard, James, an= d Taylor 2002). This difference in how talkers and non-talkers define their classroom respo= nsibilities has been shown in a variety of contexts. First Year Seminar stu= dents studied by Goodman, Murphy, and D=92Andrea (2012) did not perceive th= at verbal participation was required of them, viewing discussion as strictl= y voluntary. Fritschner (2000) found that the quieter students defined part= icipation much more broadly than did talkative students. For quieter studen= ts, participation included things like attendance, paying attention, active= learning, and doing homework. So in their view, they could be actively =93= participating=94 in class without ever speaking =96 a point of view the ins= tructor may not share. Interestingly, Goodman, Murphy, and D=92Andrea (2012) also found that the c= reation of a safe, supportive classroom environment, at least when not comb= ined with explicit expectations for participation, can potentially undermin= e an instructor=92s efforts to engage students in discussion. In their stud= y, students=92 desire to be supportive of each other (part of a safe enviro= nment) didn=92t allow for them to express disagreement. Therefore, the prof= essor=92s emphasis on a supportive, encouraging environment caused students= to perceive it was acceptable to not participate and absolutely inappropri= ate to challenge a classmate=92s statements. After all, a supportive enviro= nment can be easily construed to be a situation wherein one is never made u= ncomfortable or asked to do anything he or she would rather not do. As they= explored students=92 emotional reactions to and understandings of the clas= sroom, Goodman, Murphy, and D=92Andrea (2012) also found a tension between = students=92 beliefs that they ideally should be both invested in classroom = discussion and emotionally detached. Given this tension, some students chos= e not to speak when they were the most emotionally invested or held the str= ongest beliefs about the topic. This may have been a strategy to prevent st= udents=92 sense of self or core beliefs from being subject to uncomfortable= scrutiny. However, as instructors we need to be careful not to make assump= tions that reflect poorly upon students=92 decision not to participate verb= ally. Reda (2009) conducted a yearlong study of a first-year composition course i= n which students were occasionally asked to write about their experience of= classroom silence. Through class members=92 writing and through interviews= with five of the students, Reda (2009) concluded that students tended to p= erceive speaking in class to be a high-stakes situation amounting to an ora= l exam in which they were expected to provide the =93right=94 answer. If th= e instructor graded participation, the stakes were even higher for students= . Reda (2009) found that students, through their observations of the instru= ctor, would assess the type of questions asked and the instructor=92s respo= nses to student input to determine if they were being asked to reflect, spe= culate, hypothesize, or perform on what they considered to be an oral quiz.= Reda=92s (2009) students, like those of Goodman, Murphy, and D=92Andrea (2= 012), were also quite concerned with their classmates=92 perceptions and ho= w perceptions of the speaker could be shaped by what a student says in clas= s. This situation made it risky for students to verbally disagree with or c= hallenge the views of their classmates. For example, Reda (2009) noted that= challenging a peer on a highly charged topic like affirmative action could= result in being branded a racist. Therefore, not only was participation vi= ewed as stressful because it was perceived as an oral quiz, it was also haz= ardous in that it could result in classmates developing unfavorable views o= f you. While faculty members often think that controversial topics are great for d= iscussion, students may not see them that way. Whether one is discussing ev= olution, global warming, gun control, abortion, or any liberal-versus-conse= rvative topic, the faculty member may see these as interesting topics for s= tudents to debate and discuss. However, our students may perceive them as q= uite threatening to their sense of self or to dearly held beliefs and as da= ngerous topics because of the risk of classmates=92 negative judgments of t= hem. One strategy for helping students discuss such sensitive and strongly held = topics is to ask them to articulate the opposite perspective of the one the= y personally hold. You can justify this by suggesting that in order to defe= nd one=92s position you must understand your critic=92s position. If you he= ld a pro-gun control perspective, what arguments could you make against gun= control? If students are attempting to place themselves in the role of ano= ther who thinks differently than they do, they are learning to view a topic= , like gun control, from a different perspective. In so doing they learn bo= th the strengths and weaknesses of their dearly held positions. Each of the studies cited above points to the complexities of defining the = situation in the college classroom, particularly when it comes to participa= tion. What the instructor may see as a collaborative construction of knowle= dge, students may perceive as a high-stakes test made even more dangerous b= ecause of the risk of a negative social judgment by one=92s peers. These fi= ndings point to a need for instructors to involve students in a discussion = about discussion by making explicit our understandings and expectations for= discussion (e.g., =93Not only are you not expected to always provide the = =91right=92 answer, in many cases there is no single right answer=94). Addi= tionally, there is a need to vary the format of discussion from whole-class= discussion to small groups to pairs to online forums in order to reduce th= e sense of risk involved for students. Later in this chapter we identify so= me strategies to assist with this goal. Students=92 Views of Faculty Responsibilities in College Courses Not only do students attempt to identify and understand their own roles as = they develop their definition of the situation in your classroom, they are = attempting to explicate the role and expectations of the instructor. As not= ed before, students attempt to assess the type of input the instructor may = be seeking in classroom discussion (Reda 2009). They also try to determine = whether the instructor desires their participation at all. And what student= s perceive about expectations for discussion may be different from what the= instructor thinks he or she is communicating. For example, in one study I = conducted with colleagues, we (Howard, Short, and Clark 1996) found that in= structors perceived themselves pausing for and inviting students to partici= pate in discussion more frequently than did their students. The instructors= included in the study felt they were offering frequent and safe invitation= s for participation, while students felt instructors moved on quickly witho= ut allowing sufficient time for students to first contemplate and then resp= ond. Different groups of students may interpret the instructor=92s behaviors in = the classroom in a dissimilar fashion. Students identified as talkers, who = accepted the consolidation of responsibility for student participation, in = Howard and Baird=92s (2000) study were significantly more likely to agree t= hat the instructor paused long enough and frequently enough to allow for st= udent questions and comments than were quieter students. Crombie et al. (2= 003) found that active participators regarded their professors as more posi= tive, as more personalizing, and as stimulating more discussion than did ot= her students in the same class who perceived themselves as less active part= icipators. In addition, the active participators had a more positive impres= sion of their professors overall compared to the less active students (Crom= bie et al. 2003), which certainly has the potential to influence their rati= ngs and comments on end-of-semester course evaluations. In terms of their expectations of the instructor role, talkers and non-talk= ers tend to agree that the instructor should be knowledgeable, make class i= nteresting, follow the syllabus, motivate students to participate in discus= sion, and know students by name (Howard and Baird 2000). However, talkers w= ere significantly more likely to say that instructors should help them =93t= hink critically about material=94 than were non-talkers (Howard and Baird 2= 000). This may reflect a difference in preparedness between talkers and non= -talkers for what Roberts (2002) calls deep learning =96 a topic to which w= e return later in this chapter. Howard, James, and Taylor (2002) found that= talkers differed from non-talkers in their expectations on a number of lev= els. Talkers were significantly more likely to agree that it is part of the= instructor=92s responsibility to know students=92 names, to motivate stude= nts, to encourage discussion, and to pause long enough and often enough to = allow students to participate. Students=92 expectation that the instructor be knowledgeable about the subj= ect matter can be something of a double-edged sword. When students view the= faculty member as the sole source of authoritative knowledge, it can reduc= e students=92 self-confidence, increase their fear of criticism, and thereb= y hinder participation (Weaver and Qi 2005). Given that self-confidence is = a strong predictor of student participation, anything that undermines stude= nts=92 self-confidence will inhibit discussion. So while students rightfull= y expect the instructor to be knowledgeable, instructors must be careful no= t to create a definition of the situation wherein the instructor is the onl= y source of knowledge and understanding. When an instructor over-relies on = lecture, it is easy for students to perceive her as the only authoritative = source of knowledge in the class. By taking intentional steps to involve st= udents actively in class, we can make them co-creators of knowledge and und= erstanding. Finding the proper balance between a focus on the instructor, = who does (hopefully) bring added value to the class through her training an= d expertise, and engaging students in each other=92s teaching and learning = is a challenge. The proper balance will likely vary based on the subject ma= tter of the course, the course level, and the instructor=92s pedagogical st= rengths and weaknesses. Goodman, Murphy, and D=92Andrea (2012) note that st= udents may themselves split over whether the instructor should focus on cov= ering the material or having student-centered discussions with some seeing = discussion as desirable while others prefer the instructor-centered focus o= n the material. References Berger, P.L., and Luckmann, T. The Social Construction of Reality. Garden C= ity, NY: Anchor, 1967. Crombie, G., Pyke, S.W., Silverthorn, N., Jones, A., and Piccinin, S. =93St= udents=92 Perceptions of Their Classroom Participation and Instructor as a = Function of Gender and Context.=94 Journal of Higher Education, 2003, 74(1)= , 51-76. Fritschner, L.M. =93Inside the Undergraduate College Classroom: Faculty and= Students Differ on the Meaning of Student Participation.=94 Journal of Hig= her Education, 2000, 71(3), 342-362. Goffman, E. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Garden City, NY: Anc= hor, 1959. Goodman, S.B., Murphy, K.B., and D=92Andrea, M.L. =93Discussion Dilemmas: A= n Analysis of Beliefs and Ideals in the Undergraduate Seminar.=94 Internati= onal Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 2012, 27(1), 1-21. Howard, J.R., and Baird, R. =93The Consolidation of Responsibility and Stud= ents=92 Definitions of the College Classroom.=94 Journal of Higher Educatio= n, 2000, 71(6), 700-721. Howard, J.R., James, G., and Taylor, D.R. =93The Consolidation of Responsib= ility in the Mixed-Age College Classroom.=94 Teaching Sociology, 2002, 30(2= ), 214-234. Howard, J.R., Short, L.B., and Clark, S.M. =93Student Participation in the = Mixed Age College Classroom.=94 Teaching Sociology, 1996, 24(1), 8-24. Howard, J.R., Zoeller, A., and Pratt, Y. =93Students=92 Race and Participat= ion in Classroom Discussion in Introductory Sociology: A Preliminary Invest= igation.=94 Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 2006, 6(1)= , 14-38. Reda, M.M. Between Speaking and Silence: A Study of Quiet Students. Albany,= NY: SUNY, 2009. Roberts, K.A. =93Ironies of Effective Teaching: Deep Structure Learning and= Constructions of the Classroom.=94 Teaching Sociology, 2002, 30(1), 1-15. Weaver, R.R., and Qi, J. =93Classroom Organization and Participation: Colle= ge Students=92 Perceptions.=94 Journal of Higher Education, 2005, 76(5), 57= 0-601. "Desktop faculty development 100 times per year." 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margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px"><a href= =3D"http://www.facebook.com/TomorrowsProfessor" style=3D"color:rgb(115,108,= 81); text-decoration:none; border:none"></a><a href=3D"http://twitter.com/t= omorrowsprof" style=3D"color:rgb(115,108,81); text-decoration:none; border:= none"></a><a href=3D"https://plus.google.com/communities/113334977333720402= 121" style=3D"color:rgb(115,108,81); text-decoration:none; border:none"></a= ><a href=3D"https://www.linkedin.com/groups/6528189" style=3D"color:rgb(115= ,108,81); text-decoration:none; border:none"></a></p> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class=3D"x_group-bold x_field-group-html-element" style=3D"font-weight= :bold; color:rgb(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,s= ans-serif; font-size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> <div class=3D"x_field x_field-name-field-message-header x_field-type-text-w= ith-summary x_field-label-hidden"> <div class=3D"x_field-items"> <div class=3D"x_field-item x_even"> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px"><em style= =3D"padding:0px 3px 0px 0px">The college classroom is no exception. Student= s=92 satisfaction with a course and their willingness to engage in certain = activities will depend in part on how well the instructor=92s definition of what is and ought to be happening in= the classroom aligns with their own</em></p> </div> </div> </div> </div> <h2 class=3D"x_group-title x_field-group-div" style=3D"margin:0px 0px 12px;= font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; line-height:1.2e= m; color:rgb(130,0,0); font-size:22px; padding:0px; letter-spacing:0.01em; = border-bottom-width:medium; border-bottom-style:none"> <div class=3D"x_field x_field-name-field-message-number x_field-type-number= -integer x_field-label-hidden" style=3D"display:inline"> <div class=3D"x_field-items"> <div class=3D"x_field-item x_even">1616</div> </div> </div> <div class=3D"x_field x_field-name-title x_field-type-ds x_field-label-hidd= en"> <div class=3D"x_field-items"> <div class=3D"x_field-item x_even">Students=92 Definitions of the College C= lassroom </div> </div> </div> </h2> <div class=3D"x_field x_field-name-reis-photo-1 x_field-type-ds x_field-lab= el-hidden" style=3D"float:left; clear:none; padding-right:10px; padding-bot= tom:10px; margin-top:20px; color:rgb(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pr= o',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059= 604645px"> <div class=3D"x_field-items"> <div class=3D"x_field-item x_even"> <div class=3D"x_entity x_entity-bean x_bean-stanford-postcard x_clearfix"> <div class=3D"x_content"> <div class=3D"x_postcard"> <div class=3D"x_postcard-content"> <div class=3D"x_field x_field-name-field-s-postcard-body x_field-type-text-= with-summary x_field-label-hidden"> <div class=3D"x_field-items"> <div class=3D"x_field-item x_even"><img alt=3D"Prof. Rick Reis" style=3D"bo= rder:none; height:auto; max-width:100%; vertical-align:middle; outline:none= " src=3D"https://tomprof.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/rreis.jpg"></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> Folks:</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> The posting below looks at how students define their own and the instructor= =92s responsibilities in class and what impact this has on student learning= . It is from Chapter 4 =96 Students=92 Differing Definitions of = the Classroom in the book, <em style=3D"padding:0px 3px 0px 0px">= Discussion in the College Classroom: Getting Your Students Engaged and Participating = in Person and Online</em><span style=3D"font-weight:600">, </span>by J= ay R. Howard. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. Copyright =A9 2015 Wile= y Periodicals, Inc., A Wiley Company. One Montgomery Street, Suite 1200. San Francisco, CA 94104-4594 www.wiley.= com All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> </p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> Regards,</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> </p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> Rick Reis</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> <a href=3D"mailto:reis@stanford.edu" rel=3D"nofollow" style=3D"color:rgb(11= 5,108,81); text-decoration:none; border-bottom-width:1px; border-bottom-sty= le:dotted; border-bottom-color:rgb(130,114,82)">reis@stanford.edu</a></p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> UP NEXT: Having =93The Conversation=94 =96 Telling Your Advisor You Don=92t= Want to Be a Professor</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> </p> <p style=3D"text-align:center; margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-= left:0px; color:rgb(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetic= a,sans-serif; font-size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> Tomorrow=92s Teaching and Learning</p> <p style=3D"text-align:center; margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-= left:0px; color:rgb(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetic= a,sans-serif; font-size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> ---------- 2,388 words ----------</p> <p style=3D"text-align:center; margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-= left:0px; color:rgb(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetic= a,sans-serif; font-size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> <span style=3D"font-weight:600">Students=92 Definitions of the College Clas= sroom</span></p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> Sociologists note that social contexts must be defined (Berger and Luckmann= 1967). How participants in an interaction define a situation will determin= e what behaviors they see as appropriate for that context (Goffman 1959; Mc= Hugh 1968). The college classroom is no exception. Students=92 satisfaction with a course and their willingn= ess to engage in certain activities will depend in part on how well the ins= tructor=92s definition of what is and ought to be happening in the classroo= m aligns with their own. An important part of the process is defining the roles, the expectations for behavior, = of both the instructor and students.</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> Recall that these definitions and role expectations are not developed from = scratch. We bring years of experience in similar contexts to our interactio= ns. The normative social expectations we have learned in the past will infl= uence our initial assumptions about what is going on in a particular situation. Recall the elevator norms disc= ussed in Chapter 1. When we ride a particular elevator for the first time, = we do not reinvent the wheel. We rely on our past experiences, which have t= aught us what is and is not appropriate behaviors for riding on an elevator. We face the front. We divide up the s= pace to allow one another as much personal space as possible. We limit inte= raction with strangers to a smile, a nod of the head, or small-talk. We don= =92t have to wonder each time we step onto a new elevator =96 is this one of those where we face the front? Or w= ill other passengers expect me to face the rear or the side of the elevator= instead? Elevator norms are nearly universal. We don=92t spend any time or= energy wondering about which direction we should face when we step on board a particular elevator for the first t= ime.</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> The college classroom has clear normative expectations as well. In Chapter = 2, we explored the norm of civil attention. In Chapter 3, we described the = individual and contextual factors that help to determine which students are= most likely to be the dominant talkers who accept the consolidation of responsibility for participation a= nd which students are most likely to be only occasional contributors to cla= ss discussion. Fortunately for instructors who want to engage their student= s in the pursuit of greater learning, there is enough variation in how college courses are structured to allow i= nstructors, as well as students, some room for negotiation in the definitio= n of the situation in the classroom. Students have encountered some courses= where the only person who ever talks in class is the instructor. They likely have also been in courses th= at were very interactive with high expectations for student participation. = Students may have experienced courses with a significant amount of peer-to-= peer collaborative learning. So there is a continuum of experiences with college courses from the expectat= ion for high levels of student engagement to the expectation that students = will be very passive. But the majority of students=92 experiences in higher= education are likely to have had a heavy focus on the faculty member with an expectation for some participa= tion, at least on the part of a few students. In sum, students will assume = that civil attention and the consolidation of responsibility are the operat= ive norms unless faculty members make intentional efforts to communicate a different set of norms and a new= definition of the situation. Without those intentional efforts to help stu= dents redefine their understandings of the classroom, they may resent, or e= ven actively resist, changes and are likely to express their frustrations in the end-of-semester course eva= luations.</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> Therefore, it=92s important to know our starting point. How do students def= ine their own and the instructor=92s responsibilities in class? What = reasons do they give for their own participation or lack of participation? = With an understanding of how students define the college classroom and what they think is expected of them, we can then= begin the process of creating a new definition and new expectations.</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> <span style=3D"font-weight:600">Students=92 Views of Their Responsibilities= in College Courses</span></p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> What do students typically see as their responsibilities in the college cla= ssroom? Through a series of studies, my colleagues and I have found high le= vels of agreement that students perceive they should complete assigned task= s, attend class, study, learn the material, pay attention in class, and ask for help when needed (Howard and= Baird 2000; Howard, James, and Taylor 2002; Howard, Zoeller, and Pratt 200= 6). However, there was one area of consistent and significant disagreement = between students who are dominant talkers and students who are less frequent participants in class. Given th= e topic of this book, you can guess what that difference is. Talkers are si= gnificantly more likely than non-talkers to agree that students are respons= ible for participation in class discussion (Howard and Baird 2000; Howard, James, and Taylor 2002).</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> This difference in how talkers and non-talkers define their classroom respo= nsibilities has been shown in a variety of contexts. First Year Seminar stu= dents studied by Goodman, Murphy, and D=92Andrea (2012) did not perceive th= at verbal participation was required of them, viewing discussion as strictly voluntary. Fritschner (2000) found= that the quieter students defined participation much more broadly than did= talkative students. For quieter students, participation included things li= ke attendance, paying attention, active learning, and doing homework. So in their view, they could be activ= ely =93participating=94 in class without ever speaking =96 a point of view = the instructor may not share.</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> Interestingly, Goodman, Murphy, and D=92Andrea (2012) also found that the c= reation of a safe, supportive classroom environment, at least when not comb= ined with explicit expectations for participation, can potentially undermin= e an instructor=92s efforts to engage students in discussion. In their study, students=92 desire to be supportiv= e of each other (part of a safe environment) didn=92t allow for them to exp= ress disagreement. Therefore, the professor=92s emphasis on a supportive, e= ncouraging environment caused students to perceive it was acceptable to not participate and absolutely inappropri= ate to challenge a classmate=92s statements. After all, a supportive enviro= nment can be easily construed to be a situation wherein one is never made u= ncomfortable or asked to do anything he or she would rather not do. As they explored students=92 emotional reac= tions to and understandings of the classroom, Goodman, Murphy, and D=92Andr= ea (2012) also found a tension between students=92 beliefs that they ideall= y should be both invested in classroom discussion and emotionally detached. Given this tension, some students cho= se not to speak when they were the most emotionally invested or held the st= rongest beliefs about the topic. This may have been a strategy to prevent s= tudents=92 sense of self or core beliefs from being subject to uncomfortable scrutiny. However, as instructors we n= eed to be careful not to make assumptions that reflect poorly upon students= =92 decision not to participate verbally.</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> Reda (2009) conducted a yearlong study of a first-year composition course i= n which students were occasionally asked to write about their experience of= classroom silence. Through class members=92 writing and through interviews= with five of the students, Reda (2009) concluded that students tended to perceive speaking in class to be a high-= stakes situation amounting to an oral exam in which they were expected to p= rovide the =93right=94 answer. If the instructor graded participation, the = stakes were even higher for students. Reda (2009) found that students, through their observations of the instruc= tor, would assess the type of questions asked and the instructor=92s respon= ses to student input to determine if they were being asked to reflect, spec= ulate, hypothesize, or perform on what they considered to be an oral quiz. Reda=92s (2009) students, like th= ose of Goodman, Murphy, and D=92Andrea (2012), were also quite concerned wi= th their classmates=92 perceptions and how perceptions of the speaker could= be shaped by what a student says in class. This situation made it risky for students to verbally disagree with or cha= llenge the views of their classmates. For example, Reda (2009) noted that c= hallenging a peer on a highly charged topic like affirmative action could r= esult in being branded a racist. Therefore, not only was participation viewed as stressful because it was p= erceived as an oral quiz, it was also hazardous in that it could result in = classmates developing unfavorable views of you.</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> While faculty members often think that controversial topics are great for d= iscussion, students may not see them that way. Whether one is discussing ev= olution, global warming, gun control, abortion, or any liberal-versus-conse= rvative topic, the faculty member may see these as interesting topics for students to debate and discuss. Ho= wever, our students may perceive them as quite threatening to their sense o= f self or to dearly held beliefs and as dangerous topics because of the ris= k of classmates=92 negative judgments of them.</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> One strategy for helping students discuss such sensitive and strongly held = topics is to ask them to articulate the opposite perspective of the one the= y personally hold. You can justify this by suggesting that in order to defe= nd one=92s position you must understand your critic=92s position. If you held a pro-gun control perspective, what = arguments could you make against gun control? If students are attempting to= place themselves in the role of another who thinks differently than they d= o, they are learning to view a topic, like gun control, from a different perspective. In so doing they learn bot= h the strengths and weaknesses of their dearly held positions.</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> Each of the studies cited above points to the complexities of defining the = situation in the college classroom, particularly when it comes to participa= tion. What the instructor may see as a collaborative construction of knowle= dge, students may perceive as a high-stakes test made even more dangerous because of the risk of a negativ= e social judgment by one=92s peers. These findings point to a need for inst= ructors to involve students in a discussion about discussion by making expl= icit our understandings and expectations for discussion (e.g., =93Not only are you not expected to always provide t= he =91right=92 answer, in many cases there is no single right answer=94). A= dditionally, there is a need to vary the format of discussion from whole-cl= ass discussion to small groups to pairs to online forums in order to reduce the sense of risk involved for student= s. Later in this chapter we identify some strategies to assist with this go= al.</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> <span style=3D"font-weight:600">Students=92 Views of Faculty Responsibiliti= es in College Courses</span></p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> Not only do students attempt to identify and understand their own roles as = they develop their definition of the situation in your classroom, they are = attempting to explicate the role and expectations of the instructor. As not= ed before, students attempt to assess the type of input the instructor may be seeking in classroom discussion (R= eda 2009). They also try to determine whether the instructor desires their = participation at all. And what students perceive about expectations for dis= cussion may be different from what the instructor thinks he or she is communicating. For example, in one stud= y I conducted with colleagues, we (Howard, Short, and Clark 1996) found tha= t instructors perceived themselves pausing for and inviting students to par= ticipate in discussion more frequently than did their students. The instructors included in the study felt they w= ere offering frequent and safe invitations for participation, while student= s felt instructors moved on quickly without allowing sufficient time for st= udents to first contemplate and then respond.</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> Different groups of students may interpret the instructor=92s behaviors in = the classroom in a dissimilar fashion. Students identified as talkers, who = accepted the consolidation of responsibility for student participation, in = Howard and Baird=92s (2000) study were significantly more likely to agree that the instructor paused long enough = and frequently enough to allow for student questions and comments than were= quieter students. Crombie et al. (2003) found that active participat= ors regarded their professors as more positive, as more personalizing, and as stimulating more discussion than d= id other students in the same class who perceived themselves as less active= participators. In addition, the active participators had a more positive i= mpression of their professors overall compared to the less active students (Crombie et al. 2003), which certainl= y has the potential to influence their ratings and comments on end-of-semes= ter course evaluations.</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> In terms of their expectations of the instructor role, talkers and non-talk= ers tend to agree that the instructor should be knowledgeable, make class i= nteresting, follow the syllabus, motivate students to participate in discus= sion, and know students by name (Howard and Baird 2000). However, talkers were significantly more likely t= o say that instructors should help them =93think critically about material= =94 than were non-talkers (Howard and Baird 2000). This may reflect a diffe= rence in preparedness between talkers and non-talkers for what Roberts (2002) calls <em style=3D"padding:0p= x 3px 0px 0px">deep learning</em> =96 a topic to which we return later= in this chapter. Howard, James, and Taylor (2002) found that talkers diffe= red from non-talkers in their expectations on a number of levels. Talkers were significantly more likely to agree that i= t is part of the instructor=92s responsibility to know students=92 names, t= o motivate students, to encourage discussion, and to pause long enough and = often enough to allow students to participate.</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> Students=92 expectation that the instructor be knowledgeable about the subj= ect matter can be something of a double-edged sword. When students view the= faculty member as the sole source of authoritative knowledge, it can reduc= e students=92 self-confidence, increase their fear of criticism, and thereby hinder participation (Weaver and Qi 2= 005). Given that self-confidence is a strong predictor of student participa= tion, anything that undermines students=92 self-confidence will inhibit dis= cussion. So while students rightfully expect the instructor to be knowledgeable, instructors must be careful not= to create a definition of the situation wherein the instructor is the only= source of knowledge and understanding. When an instructor over-relies on l= ecture, it is easy for students to perceive her as the only authoritative source of knowledge in the class= . By taking intentional steps to involve students actively in class, we can= make them co-creators of knowledge and understanding. Finding the pr= oper balance between a focus on the instructor, who does (hopefully) bring added value to the class through her training a= nd expertise, and engaging students in each other=92s teaching and learning= is a challenge. The proper balance will likely vary based on the subject m= atter of the course, the course level, and the instructor=92s pedagogical strengths and weaknesses. Goodman, Murp= hy, and D=92Andrea (2012) note that students may themselves split over whet= her the instructor should focus on covering the material or having student-= centered discussions with some seeing discussion as desirable while others prefer the instructor-centered focus = on the material.</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> <span style=3D"font-weight:600">References</span></p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> Berger, P.L., and Luckmann, T. <em style=3D"padding:0px 3px 0px 0px">T= he Social Construction of Reality. </em>Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1967.= </p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> Crombie, G., Pyke, S.W., Silverthorn, N., Jones, A., and Piccinin, S. =93St= udents=92 Perceptions of Their Classroom Participation and Instructor as a = Function of Gender and Context.=94 <em style=3D"padding:0px 3px 0px 0p= x">Journal of Higher Education, </em>2003, 74(1), 51-76.</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> Fritschner, L.M. =93Inside the Undergraduate College Classroom: Faculty and= Students Differ on the Meaning of Student Participation.=94 <em style= =3D"padding:0px 3px 0px 0px">Journal of Higher Education, </em>2000, 7= 1(3), 342-362.</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> Goffman, E. <em style=3D"padding:0px 3px 0px 0px">The Presentation of = Self in Everyday Life. </em>Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1959.</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> Goodman, S.B., Murphy, K.B., and D=92Andrea, M.L. =93Discussion Dilemmas: A= n Analysis of Beliefs and Ideals in the Undergraduate Seminar.=94 <em = style=3D"padding:0px 3px 0px 0px">International Journal of Qualitative Stud= ies in Education, </em>2012, 27(1), 1-21.</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> Howard, J.R., and Baird, R. =93The Consolidation of Responsibility and Stud= ents=92 Definitions of the College Classroom.=94 <em style=3D"padding:= 0px 3px 0px 0px">Journal of Higher Education,</em> 2000, 71(6), 700-72= 1.</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> Howard, J.R., James, G., and Taylor, D.R. =93The Consolidation of Responsib= ility in the Mixed-Age College Classroom.=94 <em style=3D"padding:0px = 3px 0px 0px">Teaching Sociology,</em> 2002, 30(2), 214-234.</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> Howard, J.R., Short, L.B., and Clark, S.M. =93Student Participation in the = Mixed Age College Classroom.=94 <em style=3D"padding:0px 3px 0px 0px">= Teaching Sociology, </em>1996, 24(1), 8-24.</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> Howard, J.R., Zoeller, A., and Pratt, Y. =93Students=92 Race and Participat= ion in Classroom Discussion in Introductory Sociology: A Preliminary Invest= igation.=94 <em style=3D"padding:0px 3px 0px 0px">Journal of the Schol= arship of Teaching and Learning, </em>2006, 6(1), 14-38.</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> Reda, M.M. <em style=3D"padding:0px 3px 0px 0px">Between Speaking and = Silence: A Study of Quiet Students. </em>Albany, NY: SUNY, 2009.</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> Roberts, K.A. =93Ironies of Effective Teaching: Deep Structure Learning and= Constructions of the Classroom.=94 <em style=3D"padding:0px 3px 0px 0= px">Teaching Sociology,</em> 2002, 30(1), 1-15.</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb= (51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-= size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px"> Weaver, R.R., and Qi, J. =93Classroom Organization and Participation: Colle= ge Students=92 Perceptions.=94 <em style=3D"padding:0px 3px 0px 0px">J= ournal of Higher Education, </em>2005, 76(5), 570-601.</p> <p style=3D"margin-right:0px; 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