TP Msg. #1616 Students’ Definitions of the College Classroom .eml

From: Rick Reis <reis@stanford.edu>
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Date: Mon, 29 Jan 2018 18:34:36 +0000
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The college classroom is no exception. Students=92 satisfaction with a cour=
se and their willingness to engage in certain activities will depend in par=
t on how well the instructor=92s definition of what is and ought to be happ=
ening in the classroom aligns with their own

1616
Students=92 Definitions of the College Classroom
[Prof. Rick Reis]

Folks:

The posting below looks at how students define their own and the instructor=
=92s responsibilities in class and what impact this has on student learning=
.  It is from Chapter 4 =96 Students=92 Differing Definitions of the Classr=
oom in the book, Discussion in the College Classroom: Getting Your Students=
 Engaged and Participating in Person and Online, by Jay R. Howard. Jossey-B=
ass, San Francisco. Copyright =A9 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc., A Wiley Com=
pany. One Montgomery Street, Suite 1200. San Francisco, CA 94104-4594 www.w=
iley.com All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.


Regards,


Rick Reis

reis@stanford.edu<mailto:reis@stanford.edu>

UP NEXT: Having =93The Conversation=94 =96 Telling Your Advisor You Don=92t=
 Want to Be a Professor


Tomorrow=92s Teaching and Learning

---------- 2,388 words ----------

Students=92 Definitions of the College Classroom

Sociologists note that social contexts must be defined (Berger and Luckmann=
 1967). How participants in an interaction define a situation will determin=
e what behaviors they see as appropriate for that context (Goffman 1959; Mc=
Hugh 1968). The college classroom is no exception. Students=92 satisfaction=
 with a course and their willingness to engage in certain activities will d=
epend in part on how well the instructor=92s definition of what is and ough=
t to be happening in the classroom aligns with their own. An important part=
 of the process is defining the roles, the expectations for behavior, of bo=
th the instructor and students.

Recall that these definitions and role expectations are not developed from =
scratch. We bring years of experience in similar contexts to our interactio=
ns. The normative social expectations we have learned in the past will infl=
uence our initial assumptions about what is going on in a particular situat=
ion. Recall the elevator norms discussed in Chapter 1. When we ride a parti=
cular elevator for the first time, we do not reinvent the wheel. We rely on=
 our past experiences, which have taught us what is and is not appropriate =
behaviors for riding on an elevator. We face the front. We divide up the sp=
ace to allow one another as much personal space as possible. We limit inter=
action with strangers to a smile, a nod of the head, or small-talk. We don=
=92t have to wonder each time we step onto a new elevator =96 is this one o=
f those where we face the front? Or will other passengers expect me to face=
 the rear or the side of the elevator instead? Elevator norms are nearly un=
iversal. We don=92t spend any time or energy wondering about which directio=
n we should face when we step on board a particular elevator for the first =
time.

The college classroom has clear normative expectations as well. In Chapter =
2, we explored the norm of civil attention. In Chapter 3, we described the =
individual and contextual factors that help to determine which students are=
 most likely to be the dominant talkers who accept the consolidation of res=
ponsibility for participation and which students are most likely to be only=
 occasional contributors to class discussion. Fortunately for instructors w=
ho want to engage their students in the pursuit of greater learning, there =
is enough variation in how college courses are structured to allow instruct=
ors, as well as students, some room for negotiation in the definition of th=
e situation in the classroom. Students have encountered some courses where =
the only person who ever talks in class is the instructor. They likely have=
 also been in courses that were very interactive with high expectations for=
 student participation. Students may have experienced courses with a signif=
icant amount of peer-to-peer collaborative learning.  So there is a continu=
um of experiences with college courses from the expectation for high levels=
 of student engagement to the expectation that students will be very passiv=
e. But the majority of students=92 experiences in higher education are like=
ly to have had a heavy focus on the faculty member with an expectation for =
some participation, at least on the part of a few students. In sum, student=
s will assume that civil attention and the consolidation of responsibility =
are the operative norms unless faculty members make intentional efforts to =
communicate a different set of norms and a new definition of the situation.=
 Without those intentional efforts to help students redefine their understa=
ndings of the classroom, they may resent, or even actively resist, changes =
and are likely to express their frustrations in the end-of-semester course =
evaluations.

Therefore, it=92s important to know our starting point. How do students def=
ine their own and the instructor=92s responsibilities in class?  What reaso=
ns do they give for their own participation or lack of participation? With =
an understanding of how students define the college classroom and what they=
 think is expected of them, we can then begin the process of creating a new=
 definition and new expectations.

Students=92 Views of Their Responsibilities in College Courses

What do students typically see as their responsibilities in the college cla=
ssroom? Through a series of studies, my colleagues and I have found high le=
vels of agreement that students perceive they should complete assigned task=
s, attend class, study, learn the material, pay attention in class, and ask=
 for help when needed (Howard and Baird 2000; Howard, James, and Taylor 200=
2; Howard, Zoeller, and Pratt 2006). However, there was one area of consist=
ent and significant disagreement between students who are dominant talkers =
and students who are less frequent participants in class. Given the topic o=
f this book, you can guess what that difference is. Talkers are significant=
ly more likely than non-talkers to agree that students are responsible for =
participation in class discussion (Howard and Baird 2000; Howard, James, an=
d Taylor 2002).

This difference in how talkers and non-talkers define their classroom respo=
nsibilities has been shown in a variety of contexts. First Year Seminar stu=
dents studied by Goodman, Murphy, and D=92Andrea (2012) did not perceive th=
at verbal participation was required of them, viewing discussion as strictl=
y voluntary. Fritschner (2000) found that the quieter students defined part=
icipation much more broadly than did talkative students. For quieter studen=
ts, participation included things like attendance, paying attention, active=
 learning, and doing homework. So in their view, they could be actively =93=
participating=94 in class without ever speaking =96 a point of view the ins=
tructor may not share.

Interestingly, Goodman, Murphy, and D=92Andrea (2012) also found that the c=
reation of a safe, supportive classroom environment, at least when not comb=
ined with explicit expectations for participation, can potentially undermin=
e an instructor=92s efforts to engage students in discussion. In their stud=
y, students=92 desire to be supportive of each other (part of a safe enviro=
nment) didn=92t allow for them to express disagreement. Therefore, the prof=
essor=92s emphasis on a supportive, encouraging environment caused students=
 to perceive it was acceptable to not participate and absolutely inappropri=
ate to challenge a classmate=92s statements. After all, a supportive enviro=
nment can be easily construed to be a situation wherein one is never made u=
ncomfortable or asked to do anything he or she would rather not do. As they=
 explored students=92 emotional reactions to and understandings of the clas=
sroom, Goodman, Murphy, and D=92Andrea (2012) also found a tension between =
students=92 beliefs that they ideally should be both invested in classroom =
discussion and emotionally detached. Given this tension, some students chos=
e not to speak when they were the most emotionally invested or held the str=
ongest beliefs about the topic. This may have been a strategy to prevent st=
udents=92 sense of self or core beliefs from being subject to uncomfortable=
 scrutiny. However, as instructors we need to be careful not to make assump=
tions that reflect poorly upon students=92 decision not to participate verb=
ally.

Reda (2009) conducted a yearlong study of a first-year composition course i=
n which students were occasionally asked to write about their experience of=
 classroom silence. Through class members=92 writing and through interviews=
 with five of the students, Reda (2009) concluded that students tended to p=
erceive speaking in class to be a high-stakes situation amounting to an ora=
l exam in which they were expected to provide the =93right=94 answer. If th=
e instructor graded participation, the stakes were even higher for students=
. Reda (2009) found that students, through their observations of the instru=
ctor, would assess the type of questions asked and the instructor=92s respo=
nses to student input to determine if they were being asked to reflect, spe=
culate, hypothesize, or perform on what they considered to be an oral quiz.=
 Reda=92s (2009) students, like those of Goodman, Murphy, and D=92Andrea (2=
012), were also quite concerned with their classmates=92 perceptions and ho=
w perceptions of the speaker could be shaped by what a student says in clas=
s. This situation made it risky for students to verbally disagree with or c=
hallenge the views of their classmates. For example, Reda (2009) noted that=
 challenging a peer on a highly charged topic like affirmative action could=
 result in being branded a racist. Therefore, not only was participation vi=
ewed as stressful because it was perceived as an oral quiz, it was also haz=
ardous in that it could result in classmates developing unfavorable views o=
f you.

While faculty members often think that controversial topics are great for d=
iscussion, students may not see them that way. Whether one is discussing ev=
olution, global warming, gun control, abortion, or any liberal-versus-conse=
rvative topic, the faculty member may see these as interesting topics for s=
tudents to debate and discuss. However, our students may perceive them as q=
uite threatening to their sense of self or to dearly held beliefs and as da=
ngerous topics because of the risk of classmates=92 negative judgments of t=
hem.

One strategy for helping students discuss such sensitive and strongly held =
topics is to ask them to articulate the opposite perspective of the one the=
y personally hold. You can justify this by suggesting that in order to defe=
nd one=92s position you must understand your critic=92s position. If you he=
ld a pro-gun control perspective, what arguments could you make against gun=
 control? If students are attempting to place themselves in the role of ano=
ther who thinks differently than they do, they are learning to view a topic=
, like gun control, from a different perspective. In so doing they learn bo=
th the strengths and weaknesses of their dearly held positions.

Each of the studies cited above points to the complexities of defining the =
situation in the college classroom, particularly when it comes to participa=
tion. What the instructor may see as a collaborative construction of knowle=
dge, students may perceive as a high-stakes test made even more dangerous b=
ecause of the risk of a negative social judgment by one=92s peers. These fi=
ndings point to a need for instructors to involve students in a discussion =
about discussion by making explicit our understandings and expectations for=
 discussion (e.g., =93Not only are you not expected to always provide the =
=91right=92 answer, in many cases there is no single right answer=94). Addi=
tionally, there is a need to vary the format of discussion from whole-class=
 discussion to small groups to pairs to online forums in order to reduce th=
e sense of risk involved for students. Later in this chapter we identify so=
me strategies to assist with this goal.

Students=92 Views of Faculty Responsibilities in College Courses

Not only do students attempt to identify and understand their own roles as =
they develop their definition of the situation in your classroom, they are =
attempting to explicate the role and expectations of the instructor. As not=
ed before, students attempt to assess the type of input the instructor may =
be seeking in classroom discussion (Reda 2009). They also try to determine =
whether the instructor desires their participation at all. And what student=
s perceive about expectations for discussion may be different from what the=
 instructor thinks he or she is communicating. For example, in one study I =
conducted with colleagues, we (Howard, Short, and Clark 1996) found that in=
structors perceived themselves pausing for and inviting students to partici=
pate in discussion more frequently than did their students. The instructors=
 included in the study felt they were offering frequent and safe invitation=
s for participation, while students felt instructors moved on quickly witho=
ut allowing sufficient time for students to first contemplate and then resp=
ond.

Different groups of students may interpret the instructor=92s behaviors in =
the classroom in a dissimilar fashion. Students identified as talkers, who =
accepted the consolidation of responsibility for student participation, in =
Howard and Baird=92s (2000) study were significantly more likely to agree t=
hat the instructor paused long enough and frequently enough to allow for st=
udent questions and comments than were quieter students.  Crombie et al. (2=
003) found that active participators regarded their professors as more posi=
tive, as more personalizing, and as stimulating more discussion than did ot=
her students in the same class who perceived themselves as less active part=
icipators. In addition, the active participators had a more positive impres=
sion of their professors overall compared to the less active students (Crom=
bie et al. 2003), which certainly has the potential to influence their rati=
ngs and comments on end-of-semester course evaluations.

In terms of their expectations of the instructor role, talkers and non-talk=
ers tend to agree that the instructor should be knowledgeable, make class i=
nteresting, follow the syllabus, motivate students to participate in discus=
sion, and know students by name (Howard and Baird 2000). However, talkers w=
ere significantly more likely to say that instructors should help them =93t=
hink critically about material=94 than were non-talkers (Howard and Baird 2=
000). This may reflect a difference in preparedness between talkers and non=
-talkers for what Roberts (2002) calls deep learning =96 a topic to which w=
e return later in this chapter. Howard, James, and Taylor (2002) found that=
 talkers differed from non-talkers in their expectations on a number of lev=
els. Talkers were significantly more likely to agree that it is part of the=
 instructor=92s responsibility to know students=92 names, to motivate stude=
nts, to encourage discussion, and to pause long enough and often enough to =
allow students to participate.

Students=92 expectation that the instructor be knowledgeable about the subj=
ect matter can be something of a double-edged sword. When students view the=
 faculty member as the sole source of authoritative knowledge, it can reduc=
e students=92 self-confidence, increase their fear of criticism, and thereb=
y hinder participation (Weaver and Qi 2005). Given that self-confidence is =
a strong predictor of student participation, anything that undermines stude=
nts=92 self-confidence will inhibit discussion. So while students rightfull=
y expect the instructor to be knowledgeable, instructors must be careful no=
t to create a definition of the situation wherein the instructor is the onl=
y source of knowledge and understanding. When an instructor over-relies on =
lecture, it is easy for students to perceive her as the only authoritative =
source of knowledge in the class. By taking intentional steps to involve st=
udents actively in class, we can make them co-creators of knowledge and und=
erstanding.  Finding the proper balance between a focus on the instructor, =
who does (hopefully) bring added value to the class through her training an=
d expertise, and engaging students in each other=92s teaching and learning =
is a challenge. The proper balance will likely vary based on the subject ma=
tter of the course, the course level, and the instructor=92s pedagogical st=
rengths and weaknesses. Goodman, Murphy, and D=92Andrea (2012) note that st=
udents may themselves split over whether the instructor should focus on cov=
ering the material or having student-centered discussions with some seeing =
discussion as desirable while others prefer the instructor-centered focus o=
n the material.

References

Berger, P.L., and Luckmann, T. The Social Construction of Reality. Garden C=
ity, NY: Anchor, 1967.

Crombie, G., Pyke, S.W., Silverthorn, N., Jones, A., and Piccinin, S. =93St=
udents=92 Perceptions of Their Classroom Participation and Instructor as a =
Function of Gender and Context.=94 Journal of Higher Education, 2003, 74(1)=
, 51-76.

Fritschner, L.M. =93Inside the Undergraduate College Classroom: Faculty and=
 Students Differ on the Meaning of Student Participation.=94 Journal of Hig=
her Education, 2000, 71(3), 342-362.

Goffman, E. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Garden City, NY: Anc=
hor, 1959.

Goodman, S.B., Murphy, K.B., and D=92Andrea, M.L. =93Discussion Dilemmas: A=
n Analysis of Beliefs and Ideals in the Undergraduate Seminar.=94 Internati=
onal Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 2012, 27(1), 1-21.

Howard, J.R., and Baird, R. =93The Consolidation of Responsibility and Stud=
ents=92 Definitions of the College Classroom.=94 Journal of Higher Educatio=
n, 2000, 71(6), 700-721.

Howard, J.R., James, G., and Taylor, D.R. =93The Consolidation of Responsib=
ility in the Mixed-Age College Classroom.=94 Teaching Sociology, 2002, 30(2=
), 214-234.

Howard, J.R., Short, L.B., and Clark, S.M. =93Student Participation in the =
Mixed Age College Classroom.=94 Teaching Sociology, 1996, 24(1), 8-24.

Howard, J.R., Zoeller, A., and Pratt, Y. =93Students=92 Race and Participat=
ion in Classroom Discussion in Introductory Sociology: A Preliminary Invest=
igation.=94 Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 2006, 6(1)=
, 14-38.

Reda, M.M. Between Speaking and Silence: A Study of Quiet Students. Albany,=
 NY: SUNY, 2009.

Roberts, K.A. =93Ironies of Effective Teaching: Deep Structure Learning and=
 Constructions of the Classroom.=94 Teaching Sociology, 2002, 30(1), 1-15.

Weaver, R.R., and Qi, J. =93Classroom Organization and Participation: Colle=
ge Students=92 Perceptions.=94 Journal of Higher Education, 2005, 76(5), 57=
0-601.


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<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px"><em style=
=3D"padding:0px 3px 0px 0px">The college classroom is no exception. Student=
s=92 satisfaction with a course and their willingness to engage in certain =
activities will depend in part on how
 well the instructor=92s definition of what is and ought to be happening in=
 the classroom aligns with their own</em></p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<h2 class=3D"x_group-title x_field-group-div" style=3D"margin:0px 0px 12px;=
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m; color:rgb(130,0,0); font-size:22px; padding:0px; letter-spacing:0.01em; =
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en">
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<div class=3D"x_field-item x_even">Students=92 Definitions of the College C=
lassroom&nbsp;</div>
</div>
</div>
</h2>
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el-hidden" style=3D"float:left; clear:none; padding-right:10px; padding-bot=
tom:10px; margin-top:20px; color:rgb(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pr=
o',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059=
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with-summary x_field-label-hidden">
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<div class=3D"x_field-item x_even"><img alt=3D"Prof. Rick Reis" style=3D"bo=
rder:none; height:auto; max-width:100%; vertical-align:middle; outline:none=
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(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
Folks:</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
The posting below looks at how students define their own and the instructor=
=92s responsibilities in class and what impact this has on student learning=
. &nbsp;It is from&nbsp;Chapter 4 =96 Students=92 Differing Definitions of =
the Classroom in the&nbsp;book,&nbsp;<em style=3D"padding:0px 3px 0px 0px">=
Discussion
 in the College Classroom: Getting Your Students Engaged and Participating =
in Person and Online</em><span style=3D"font-weight:600">,&nbsp;</span>by J=
ay R. Howard. Jossey-Bass,&nbsp;San Francisco.&nbsp;Copyright =A9 2015 Wile=
y Periodicals, Inc., A Wiley Company.&nbsp;One Montgomery
 Street,&nbsp;Suite 1200.&nbsp;San Francisco, CA 94104-4594&nbsp;www.wiley.=
com&nbsp;All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
&nbsp;</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
Regards,</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
&nbsp;</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
Rick Reis</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
<a href=3D"mailto:reis@stanford.edu" rel=3D"nofollow" style=3D"color:rgb(11=
5,108,81); text-decoration:none; border-bottom-width:1px; border-bottom-sty=
le:dotted; border-bottom-color:rgb(130,114,82)">reis@stanford.edu</a></p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
UP NEXT: Having =93The Conversation=94 =96 Telling Your Advisor You Don=92t=
 Want to Be a Professor</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
&nbsp;</p>
<p style=3D"text-align:center; margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-=
left:0px; color:rgb(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetic=
a,sans-serif; font-size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
Tomorrow=92s Teaching and Learning</p>
<p style=3D"text-align:center; margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-=
left:0px; color:rgb(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetic=
a,sans-serif; font-size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
---------- 2,388 words ----------</p>
<p style=3D"text-align:center; margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-=
left:0px; color:rgb(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetic=
a,sans-serif; font-size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
<span style=3D"font-weight:600">Students=92 Definitions of the College Clas=
sroom</span></p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
Sociologists note that social contexts must be defined (Berger and Luckmann=
 1967). How participants in an interaction define a situation will determin=
e what behaviors they see as appropriate for that context (Goffman 1959; Mc=
Hugh 1968). The college classroom
 is no exception. Students=92 satisfaction with a course and their willingn=
ess to engage in certain activities will depend in part on how well the ins=
tructor=92s definition of what is and ought to be happening in the classroo=
m aligns with their own. An important
 part of the process is defining the roles, the expectations for behavior, =
of both the instructor and students.</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
Recall that these definitions and role expectations are not developed from =
scratch. We bring years of experience in similar contexts to our interactio=
ns. The normative social expectations we have learned in the past will infl=
uence our initial assumptions about
 what is going on in a particular situation. Recall the elevator norms disc=
ussed in Chapter 1. When we ride a particular elevator for the first time, =
we do not reinvent the wheel. We rely on our past experiences, which have t=
aught us what is and is not appropriate
 behaviors for riding on an elevator. We face the front. We divide up the s=
pace to allow one another as much personal space as possible. We limit inte=
raction with strangers to a smile, a nod of the head, or small-talk. We don=
=92t have to wonder each time we step
 onto a new elevator =96 is this one of those where we face the front? Or w=
ill other passengers expect me to face the rear or the side of the elevator=
 instead? Elevator norms are nearly universal. We don=92t spend any time or=
 energy wondering about which direction
 we should face when we step on board a particular elevator for the first t=
ime.</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
The college classroom has clear normative expectations as well. In Chapter =
2, we explored the norm of civil attention. In Chapter 3, we described the =
individual and contextual factors that help to determine which students are=
 most likely to be the dominant
 talkers who accept the consolidation of responsibility for participation a=
nd which students are most likely to be only occasional contributors to cla=
ss discussion. Fortunately for instructors who want to engage their student=
s in the pursuit of greater learning,
 there is enough variation in how college courses are structured to allow i=
nstructors, as well as students, some room for negotiation in the definitio=
n of the situation in the classroom. Students have encountered some courses=
 where the only person who ever
 talks in class is the instructor. They likely have also been in courses th=
at were very interactive with high expectations for student participation. =
Students may have experienced courses with a significant amount of peer-to-=
peer collaborative learning.&nbsp; So
 there is a continuum of experiences with college courses from the expectat=
ion for high levels of student engagement to the expectation that students =
will be very passive. But the majority of students=92 experiences in higher=
 education are likely to have had
 a heavy focus on the faculty member with an expectation for some participa=
tion, at least on the part of a few students. In sum, students will assume =
that civil attention and the consolidation of responsibility are the operat=
ive norms unless faculty members
 make intentional efforts to communicate a different set of norms and a new=
 definition of the situation. Without those intentional efforts to help stu=
dents redefine their understandings of the classroom, they may resent, or e=
ven actively resist, changes and
 are likely to express their frustrations in the end-of-semester course eva=
luations.</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
Therefore, it=92s important to know our starting point. How do students def=
ine their own and the instructor=92s responsibilities in class?&nbsp; What =
reasons do they give for their own participation or lack of participation? =
With an understanding of how students define
 the college classroom and what they think is expected of them, we can then=
 begin the process of creating a new definition and new expectations.</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
<span style=3D"font-weight:600">Students=92 Views of Their Responsibilities=
 in College Courses</span></p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
What do students typically see as their responsibilities in the college cla=
ssroom? Through a series of studies, my colleagues and I have found high le=
vels of agreement that students perceive they should complete assigned task=
s, attend class, study, learn the
 material, pay attention in class, and ask for help when needed (Howard and=
 Baird 2000; Howard, James, and Taylor 2002; Howard, Zoeller, and Pratt 200=
6). However, there was one area of consistent and significant disagreement =
between students who are dominant
 talkers and students who are less frequent participants in class. Given th=
e topic of this book, you can guess what that difference is. Talkers are si=
gnificantly more likely than non-talkers to agree that students are respons=
ible for participation in class
 discussion (Howard and Baird 2000; Howard, James, and Taylor 2002).</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
This difference in how talkers and non-talkers define their classroom respo=
nsibilities has been shown in a variety of contexts. First Year Seminar stu=
dents studied by Goodman, Murphy, and D=92Andrea (2012) did not perceive th=
at verbal participation was required
 of them, viewing discussion as strictly voluntary. Fritschner (2000) found=
 that the quieter students defined participation much more broadly than did=
 talkative students. For quieter students, participation included things li=
ke attendance, paying attention,
 active learning, and doing homework. So in their view, they could be activ=
ely =93participating=94 in class without ever speaking =96 a point of view =
the instructor may not share.</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
Interestingly, Goodman, Murphy, and D=92Andrea (2012) also found that the c=
reation of a safe, supportive classroom environment, at least when not comb=
ined with explicit expectations for participation, can potentially undermin=
e an instructor=92s efforts to engage
 students in discussion. In their study, students=92 desire to be supportiv=
e of each other (part of a safe environment) didn=92t allow for them to exp=
ress disagreement. Therefore, the professor=92s emphasis on a supportive, e=
ncouraging environment caused students
 to perceive it was acceptable to not participate and absolutely inappropri=
ate to challenge a classmate=92s statements. After all, a supportive enviro=
nment can be easily construed to be a situation wherein one is never made u=
ncomfortable or asked to do anything
 he or she would rather not do. As they explored students=92 emotional reac=
tions to and understandings of the classroom, Goodman, Murphy, and D=92Andr=
ea (2012) also found a tension between students=92 beliefs that they ideall=
y should be both invested in classroom
 discussion and emotionally detached. Given this tension, some students cho=
se not to speak when they were the most emotionally invested or held the st=
rongest beliefs about the topic. This may have been a strategy to prevent s=
tudents=92 sense of self or core beliefs
 from being subject to uncomfortable scrutiny. However, as instructors we n=
eed to be careful not to make assumptions that reflect poorly upon students=
=92 decision not to participate verbally.</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
Reda (2009) conducted a yearlong study of a first-year composition course i=
n which students were occasionally asked to write about their experience of=
 classroom silence. Through class members=92 writing and through interviews=
 with five of the students, Reda (2009)
 concluded that students tended to perceive speaking in class to be a high-=
stakes situation amounting to an oral exam in which they were expected to p=
rovide the =93right=94 answer. If the instructor graded participation, the =
stakes were even higher for students.
 Reda (2009) found that students, through their observations of the instruc=
tor, would assess the type of questions asked and the instructor=92s respon=
ses to student input to determine if they were being asked to reflect, spec=
ulate, hypothesize, or perform on
 what they considered to be an oral quiz. Reda=92s (2009) students, like th=
ose of Goodman, Murphy, and D=92Andrea (2012), were also quite concerned wi=
th their classmates=92 perceptions and how perceptions of the speaker could=
 be shaped by what a student says in class.
 This situation made it risky for students to verbally disagree with or cha=
llenge the views of their classmates. For example, Reda (2009) noted that c=
hallenging a peer on a highly charged topic like affirmative action could r=
esult in being branded a racist.
 Therefore, not only was participation viewed as stressful because it was p=
erceived as an oral quiz, it was also hazardous in that it could result in =
classmates developing unfavorable views of you.</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
While faculty members often think that controversial topics are great for d=
iscussion, students may not see them that way. Whether one is discussing ev=
olution, global warming, gun control, abortion, or any liberal-versus-conse=
rvative topic, the faculty member
 may see these as interesting topics for students to debate and discuss. Ho=
wever, our students may perceive them as quite threatening to their sense o=
f self or to dearly held beliefs and as dangerous topics because of the ris=
k of classmates=92 negative judgments
 of them.</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
One strategy for helping students discuss such sensitive and strongly held =
topics is to ask them to articulate the opposite perspective of the one the=
y personally hold. You can justify this by suggesting that in order to defe=
nd one=92s position you must understand
 your critic=92s position. If you held a pro-gun control perspective, what =
arguments could you make against gun control? If students are attempting to=
 place themselves in the role of another who thinks differently than they d=
o, they are learning to view a topic,
 like gun control, from a different perspective. In so doing they learn bot=
h the strengths and weaknesses of their dearly held positions.</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
Each of the studies cited above points to the complexities of defining the =
situation in the college classroom, particularly when it comes to participa=
tion. What the instructor may see as a collaborative construction of knowle=
dge, students may perceive as a
 high-stakes test made even more dangerous because of the risk of a negativ=
e social judgment by one=92s peers. These findings point to a need for inst=
ructors to involve students in a discussion about discussion by making expl=
icit our understandings and expectations
 for discussion (e.g., =93Not only are you not expected to always provide t=
he =91right=92 answer, in many cases there is no single right answer=94). A=
dditionally, there is a need to vary the format of discussion from whole-cl=
ass discussion to small groups to pairs
 to online forums in order to reduce the sense of risk involved for student=
s. Later in this chapter we identify some strategies to assist with this go=
al.</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
<span style=3D"font-weight:600">Students=92 Views of Faculty Responsibiliti=
es in College Courses</span></p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
Not only do students attempt to identify and understand their own roles as =
they develop their definition of the situation in your classroom, they are =
attempting to explicate the role and expectations of the instructor. As not=
ed before, students attempt to assess
 the type of input the instructor may be seeking in classroom discussion (R=
eda 2009). They also try to determine whether the instructor desires their =
participation at all. And what students perceive about expectations for dis=
cussion may be different from what
 the instructor thinks he or she is communicating. For example, in one stud=
y I conducted with colleagues, we (Howard, Short, and Clark 1996) found tha=
t instructors perceived themselves pausing for and inviting students to par=
ticipate in discussion more frequently
 than did their students. The instructors included in the study felt they w=
ere offering frequent and safe invitations for participation, while student=
s felt instructors moved on quickly without allowing sufficient time for st=
udents to first contemplate and
 then respond.</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
Different groups of students may interpret the instructor=92s behaviors in =
the classroom in a dissimilar fashion. Students identified as talkers, who =
accepted the consolidation of responsibility for student participation, in =
Howard and Baird=92s (2000) study were
 significantly more likely to agree that the instructor paused long enough =
and frequently enough to allow for student questions and comments than were=
 quieter students.&nbsp; Crombie et al. (2003) found that active participat=
ors regarded their professors as more
 positive, as more personalizing, and as stimulating more discussion than d=
id other students in the same class who perceived themselves as less active=
 participators. In addition, the active participators had a more positive i=
mpression of their professors overall
 compared to the less active students (Crombie et al. 2003), which certainl=
y has the potential to influence their ratings and comments on end-of-semes=
ter course evaluations.</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
In terms of their expectations of the instructor role, talkers and non-talk=
ers tend to agree that the instructor should be knowledgeable, make class i=
nteresting, follow the syllabus, motivate students to participate in discus=
sion, and know students by name
 (Howard and Baird 2000). However, talkers were significantly more likely t=
o say that instructors should help them =93think critically about material=
=94 than were non-talkers (Howard and Baird 2000). This may reflect a diffe=
rence in preparedness between talkers
 and non-talkers for what Roberts (2002) calls&nbsp;<em style=3D"padding:0p=
x 3px 0px 0px">deep learning</em>&nbsp;=96 a topic to which we return later=
 in this chapter. Howard, James, and Taylor (2002) found that talkers diffe=
red from non-talkers in their expectations on
 a number of levels. Talkers were significantly more likely to agree that i=
t is part of the instructor=92s responsibility to know students=92 names, t=
o motivate students, to encourage discussion, and to pause long enough and =
often enough to allow students to participate.</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
Students=92 expectation that the instructor be knowledgeable about the subj=
ect matter can be something of a double-edged sword. When students view the=
 faculty member as the sole source of authoritative knowledge, it can reduc=
e students=92 self-confidence, increase
 their fear of criticism, and thereby hinder participation (Weaver and Qi 2=
005). Given that self-confidence is a strong predictor of student participa=
tion, anything that undermines students=92 self-confidence will inhibit dis=
cussion. So while students rightfully
 expect the instructor to be knowledgeable, instructors must be careful not=
 to create a definition of the situation wherein the instructor is the only=
 source of knowledge and understanding. When an instructor over-relies on l=
ecture, it is easy for students
 to perceive her as the only authoritative source of knowledge in the class=
. By taking intentional steps to involve students actively in class, we can=
 make them co-creators of knowledge and understanding.&nbsp; Finding the pr=
oper balance between a focus on the instructor,
 who does (hopefully) bring added value to the class through her training a=
nd expertise, and engaging students in each other=92s teaching and learning=
 is a challenge. The proper balance will likely vary based on the subject m=
atter of the course, the course level,
 and the instructor=92s pedagogical strengths and weaknesses. Goodman, Murp=
hy, and D=92Andrea (2012) note that students may themselves split over whet=
her the instructor should focus on covering the material or having student-=
centered discussions with some seeing
 discussion as desirable while others prefer the instructor-centered focus =
on the material.</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
<span style=3D"font-weight:600">References</span></p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
Berger, P.L., and Luckmann, T.&nbsp;<em style=3D"padding:0px 3px 0px 0px">T=
he Social Construction of Reality.&nbsp;</em>Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1967.=
</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
Crombie, G., Pyke, S.W., Silverthorn, N., Jones, A., and Piccinin, S. =93St=
udents=92 Perceptions of Their Classroom Participation and Instructor as a =
Function of Gender and Context.=94&nbsp;<em style=3D"padding:0px 3px 0px 0p=
x">Journal of Higher Education,&nbsp;</em>2003, 74(1),
 51-76.</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
Fritschner, L.M. =93Inside the Undergraduate College Classroom: Faculty and=
 Students Differ on the Meaning of Student Participation.=94&nbsp;<em style=
=3D"padding:0px 3px 0px 0px">Journal of Higher Education,&nbsp;</em>2000, 7=
1(3), 342-362.</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
Goffman, E.&nbsp;<em style=3D"padding:0px 3px 0px 0px">The Presentation of =
Self in Everyday Life.&nbsp;</em>Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1959.</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
Goodman, S.B., Murphy, K.B., and D=92Andrea, M.L. =93Discussion Dilemmas: A=
n Analysis of Beliefs and Ideals in the Undergraduate Seminar.=94&nbsp;<em =
style=3D"padding:0px 3px 0px 0px">International Journal of Qualitative Stud=
ies in Education,&nbsp;</em>2012, 27(1), 1-21.</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
Howard, J.R., and Baird, R. =93The Consolidation of Responsibility and Stud=
ents=92 Definitions of the College Classroom.=94&nbsp;<em style=3D"padding:=
0px 3px 0px 0px">Journal of Higher Education,</em>&nbsp;2000, 71(6), 700-72=
1.</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
Howard, J.R., James, G., and Taylor, D.R. =93The Consolidation of Responsib=
ility in the Mixed-Age College Classroom.=94&nbsp;<em style=3D"padding:0px =
3px 0px 0px">Teaching Sociology,</em>&nbsp;2002, 30(2), 214-234.</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
Howard, J.R., Short, L.B., and Clark, S.M. =93Student Participation in the =
Mixed Age College Classroom.=94&nbsp;<em style=3D"padding:0px 3px 0px 0px">=
Teaching Sociology,&nbsp;</em>1996, 24(1), 8-24.</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
Howard, J.R., Zoeller, A., and Pratt, Y. =93Students=92 Race and Participat=
ion in Classroom Discussion in Introductory Sociology: A Preliminary Invest=
igation.=94&nbsp;<em style=3D"padding:0px 3px 0px 0px">Journal of the Schol=
arship of Teaching and Learning,&nbsp;</em>2006, 6(1),
 14-38.</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
Reda, M.M.&nbsp;<em style=3D"padding:0px 3px 0px 0px">Between Speaking and =
Silence: A Study of Quiet Students.&nbsp;</em>Albany, NY: SUNY, 2009.</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
Roberts, K.A. =93Ironies of Effective Teaching: Deep Structure Learning and=
 Constructions of the Classroom.=94&nbsp;<em style=3D"padding:0px 3px 0px 0=
px">Teaching Sociology,</em>&nbsp;2002, 30(1), 1-15.</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
Weaver, R.R., and Qi, J. =93Classroom Organization and Participation: Colle=
ge Students=92 Perceptions.=94&nbsp;<em style=3D"padding:0px 3px 0px 0px">J=
ournal of Higher Education,&nbsp;</em>2005, 76(5), 570-601.</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
size:14px; letter-spacing:0.14000000059604645px">
&nbsp;</p>
<p style=3D"margin-right:0px; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0px; color:rgb=
(51,51,51); font-family:'Source Sans Pro',Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-=
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